PQQ (pyrroloquinoline quinone)
Also called pyrroloquinoline quinone, PQQ disodium salt, methoxatin. Redox cofactor (quinone compound); sold mainly as PQQ disodium salt.
Bottom line
PQQ is a redox cofactor found in small amounts in foods such as natto [4][11]. In small maker-linked trials in adults over 40, 20-21.5 mg/day for 12 weeks improved some memory and attention scores versus placebo [1][3], but two small trials found no significant endurance benefit [5][6]. The EU limits PQQ supplements to adults, excluding pregnant and breastfeeding women [21].
- In a 12-week placebo-controlled trial of 64 healthy adults aged 40 to under 80 who felt more forgetful, funded by Ryusendo and run by its researchers, 21.5 mg/day of PQQ disodium salt improved composite and verbal memory scores [1].
- In 41 healthy older adults, 20 mg/day of BioPQQ for 12 weeks produced a smaller change in Stroop interference (a measure of selective attention) than placebo, in a trial co-authored by a Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researcher [3].
- Two small placebo-controlled trials found no significant benefit over placebo on aerobic performance or exercise capacity in men taking 20 mg of PQQ [5][6].
- EFSA judged PQQ disodium salt safe at up to 20 mg/day for healthy adults other than pregnant and lactating women, noting that the clinical studies were not designed to assess kidney function [11].
- PQQ is an authorised novel food in the EU and Great Britain and a listed antioxidant ingredient in Canada, each limited to adults at up to 20 mg a day [17][19][21].
Evidence by outcome
| Outcome | Grade | Basis | Modifiers | Rationale |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Attention | C Limited | Two small RCTs with industry-employed authors, positive on attention measures (C); not B under the rubric (each under 100 participants, both industry-linked) | Industry-fundedShort-term only | Why C grade for Attention: explainedApproved of the Attention grade |
| Endurance performance | C Limited, no effect found | Two small placebo-controlled RCTs, both null on exercise performance; not adequately sized for N, so C with direction none | Short-term only | Why C grade for Endurance performance: explainedApproved of the Endurance performance grade |
| Executive function | C Limited | Two supplier-run placebo-controlled trials, one randomized and one of unreported size and design detail, one positive in an age subgroup (C) | Industry-fundedShort-term only | Why C grade for Executive function: explainedApproved of the Executive function grade |
| Memory | C Limited | Two small placebo-controlled trials, both run by researchers employed by PQQ makers (C); not B under the rubric because only one trial (n = 64) could be appraised beyond the abstract, and the second reports no sample size or primary outcome in its abstract | Industry-fundedShort-term only | Why C grade for Memory: explainedApproved of the Memory grade |
| Blood triglycerides | C Limited, no effect found | One small supplier-run RCT null on triglycerides, plus an uncontrolled crossover study; not adequate for N, so C with direction none | Short-term only | Why C grade for Blood triglycerides: explainedApproved of the Blood triglycerides grade |
Grades describe evidence for each outcome, not a recommendation. Open a grade for its rationale and dated grade history. How we grade
As of November 11, 2026 we found no meta-analysis or systematic review of PQQ trials in people (PubMed and Europe PMC searches, November 11, 2026). The human evidence is a handful of small trials, and most were run or co-authored by researchers at companies that make PQQ, so each section names the funder or employer. Our grades are set per outcome; the evidence grading method explains what each grade requires.
Does PQQ improve memory?
Two trials reported better memory scores, both run by researchers employed by PQQ makers [1][2]. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 64 healthy Japanese adults aged 40 to under 80 took 21.5 mg/day of PQQ disodium salt (mnemoPQQ) or a placebo for 12 weeks [1]. The trial was funded by Ryusendo Co., Ltd., and its researchers ran it [1]. The participants were people who felt they had become more forgetful with age, and the 58 who finished had an average age of about 71 [1].
On the Cognitrax computer test battery, the primary outcome, the PQQ group improved more than the placebo group on composite memory and verbal memory, as well as on several other domains [1]. Scores on a forgetfulness questionnaire and on the MMSE-J, a short cognitive screening test, also improved [1]. The journal later corrected minor errors in one results table [1]; no figure from that table is used here.
A second double-blind, placebo-controlled trial gave 20 mg/day of PQQ for 12 weeks to adults aged 20 to 65, and was run by researchers employed by Mitsubishi Gas Chemical [2]. Composite memory and verbal memory improved after 12 weeks, but in the age-split analysis only the 41 to 65 group showed memory gains [2]. Its abstract does not give the number of participants or the primary outcome, and we could not read the full text.
A third trial, in 41 healthy older adults taking 20 mg/day of BioPQQ for 12 weeks, found a rise on a visual-spatial cognitive test (Touch M) only in the subgroup that started with lower scores, in a stratified analysis [3]. That trial was co-authored by a Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researcher [3]. Touch M measures visual-spatial function rather than memory, so this trial adds no placebo-controlled memory result. With both memory trials industry-linked and 12 weeks long, and the one with a reported size under 100 participants, the memory grade is cautious. PQQ appears on our memory hub.
Does PQQ improve attention?
Possibly, in older adults, on one or two tests [3][1]. In the trial of 41 healthy older adults, co-authored by a Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researcher, the change in Stroop interference, a measure of selective attention, was significantly smaller with 20 mg/day of BioPQQ than with placebo over 12 weeks [3]. In the Ryusendo-funded trial of adults aged 40 to under 80, complex attention and reaction time scores improved more with PQQ than with placebo [1]. As of November 11, 2026 we found no independent trial of attention (PubMed search, November 11, 2026), and both trials enrolled fewer than 100 people.
Does PQQ improve executive function?
The evidence is thin and partly limited to subgroups [1][2]. In the Ryusendo-funded trial, cognitive flexibility and executive function scores improved more with PQQ than with placebo after 12 weeks [1]. In the trial run by Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researchers, cognitive flexibility, processing speed and execution speed improved after 8 weeks in the 20 to 40 age group of an age-split analysis [2]. Results from one age group of one trial may not apply to adults in general.
Does PQQ improve endurance or exercise performance?
Not in the two trials we found [5][6]. In a randomized, placebo-controlled trial, 23 untrained men took 20 mg/day of PQQ or placebo while following a supervised six-week endurance training program [5]. There were no significant differences between groups in aerobic performance after training; both groups improved peak oxygen uptake and test duration with training alone [5]. The authors concluded that PQQ did not appear to have ergogenic effects on aerobic performance or body composition [5].
In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 60 male physical education students aged 18 to 28, split into four groups (placebo, PQQ, NMN or both), a single 20 mg dose of PQQ taken 60 minutes before a treadmill test to exhaustion did not significantly improve exercise capacity [6]. The trial's main focus was interoception, the sense of signals from inside the body, after exhaustive exercise [6]. The study, funded by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, did find that one self-rated measure of body awareness, called body listening, improved more with PQQ [6]. Both trials were small and short, which is why the grade reads "Limited, mixed" rather than a firm "no effect".
Does PQQ lower blood triglycerides?
Not in the one placebo-controlled trial [7]. In 29 healthy Japanese adults aged 40 to 57 with normal to moderately high triglycerides, mean serum triglycerides had not changed after 12 weeks of 20 mg/day of BioPQQ [7]. The trial was led by a Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researcher [7]. LDL cholesterol fell from 136.1 to 127.0 mg/dL in the PQQ group, a change the authors call marginally significant; in a stratified analysis of the 11 participants (across both groups) with high starting LDL, the fall in the PQQ group was significant compared with placebo [7]. In a small crossover study of 10 adults without a placebo group, standard blood measures including triglycerides were not altered [8].
What the evidence does not show
- Energy, fatigue, mood and sleep. As of November 11, 2026 we found no placebo-controlled trial of PQQ alone on these outcomes (PubMed and Europe PMC searches, November 11, 2026). A review by Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researchers describes an open-label trial in which 17 adults took 20 mg/day for 8 weeks and reported better sleep and mood [12]; with no placebo group, that result cannot separate PQQ from expectation.
- Mitochondrial biogenesis as a benefit. The PGC-1α rise in the endurance-training trial of untrained men came with no change in aerobic performance [5], so a mitochondrial marker should not be read as a performance effect.
- Clinical populations. In 34 older adults with diagnosed mild cognitive impairment, a clinical population, PQQ combined with dihydrogen-producing magnesium for 6 weeks improved the orientation part of a standard cognitive rating scale compared with placebo [9]. The change in its primary outcome, the growth factor BDNF, was a non-significant trend [9]. One author was employed by, and another paid consulting fees by, CalerieLife, which supplied the supplement [9]. Results may not apply to healthy adults, and the effect of PQQ alone cannot be separated from the mixture.
- Ovarian reserve. In an open-label study of 50 healthy women funded by ROHTO Pharmaceutical, 20 mg/day of PQQ for about 90 days did not change anti-Müllerian hormone levels overall [10].
Doses used in studies
Ranges researchers used, not dosing advice. Bars share one scale. Read our disclaimer.
Timing and form
EFSA describes information on the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of PQQ in animals and humans as limited [11]. In one small study, 10 adults drank a single dose of 0.2 mg/kg in a fruit-flavored drink, and PQQ levels in blood and urine were tracked over 48 hours [8].
Most trials gave PQQ daily for 6 to 12 weeks [1][3][5]. In the Mitsubishi Gas Chemical trial, changes appeared at 8 weeks in younger adults and at 12 weeks in older adults [2]. The single-dose exercise trial gave PQQ 60 minutes before exercise and found no gain in exercise capacity [6]. One trial in a clinical population tested PQQ combined with magnesium, a daily dosage the authors describe as containing 20 mg of PQQ and 80 mg of magnesium, taken twice a day before breakfast and dinner [9].
What it is
PQQ, short for pyrroloquinoline quinone, is a quinone compound first identified in 1979 [3]. It was originally found in methanol-utilizing bacteria and works as a cofactor for redox enzymes, the enzymes that move electrons in chemical reactions [4]. Health Canada also lists it under the name methoxatin [18].
PQQ occurs naturally at low levels in foods, including potato, spinach, parsley and green pepper, fermented soy foods such as natto, tofu and miso, and milk and egg [11]. The 20 mg/day supplement level that EFSA, the European Food Safety Authority, assessed is at least 250 times the estimated background intake from food [11].
The form tested in trials and authorised in the EU and Great Britain is PQQ disodium salt, sold under trade names such as BioPQQ and mnemoPQQ [1][11]. The authorised form is a reddish-brown powder made by fermentation with the bacterium Hyphomicrobium denitrificans [17]. EFSA's assessment was requested by Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Company, which makes BioPQQ [11], and researchers from that company ran or co-authored several of the trials below.
How it might work (mechanism, not effect): in animals, PQQ influences energy-related metabolism and nerve function [8]. In a trial of 23 men doing endurance training, PGC-1α, a protein that signals mitochondrial biogenesis (the making of new mitochondria), rose more with PQQ than with placebo [5]. An International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand lists PQQ among purported antioxidants with limited data and rates its evidence as preclinical [13]. In 20 adults aged 50 to 70, 12 weeks of PQQ raised hemoglobin levels in the right prefrontal cortex, a marker of local blood flow, in a trial with two Mitsubishi Gas Chemical authors [4]. In 10 healthy adults, a few days of PQQ lowered C-reactive protein and IL-6, two inflammation markers, but that study had no placebo group [8]. These are biomarker changes, and they do not show that people think or perform better.
Safety and interactions
Safety flag. Trials of 20-21.5 mg/day for up to 12 weeks, run or co-authored by PQQ makers, reported no adverse events [1][3]. EFSA found that 12 clinical studies, at up to 100 mg/day for up to 24 weeks, raised no safety concern, but they were not designed to assess kidney function [11]. In rats, crystals and protein in urine at 200 mg/kg body weight were the critical effect in EFSA's assessment; EFSA concluded the 20 mg/day supplement level is safe for the intended adult users [11]. The EU and GB authorisations exclude pregnant and lactating women and require a label statement saying so [17][21].
Who sources say should be careful.
- Pregnant and breastfeeding women. The EU and GB authorisations cover food supplements for adults excluding pregnant and lactating women, and require labels to say "This food supplement should be consumed by adults only excluding pregnant and lactating women" [17][21]. Health Canada requires a caution to ask a health care practitioner before use if pregnant or breastfeeding [19].
- Children. EFSA notes that food supplements containing PQQ are not intended for use by children [11], and Health Canada's monograph covers adults 18 years and older [19].
The trials reported few problems over short periods. The Ryusendo-funded trial reported no adverse events over 12 weeks [1], and the BioPQQ attention trial, co-authored by a Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researcher, found no abnormal blood or urine results [3]. In the clinical trial of the PQQ and magnesium mixture, supplied by CalerieLife, whose employee and consultant were authors, participants who finished reported no significant side effects [9].
EFSA's 2017 opinion is the most detailed safety assessment we found [11]. It notes that 12 clinical studies used doses up to 100 mg/day for up to 24 weeks and did not raise safety concerns, but that they were not designed to assess kidney function and are of limited value for the safety assessment [11]. In rats, crystals and protein in urine at 200 mg/kg body weight in a 28-day study were the critical effect, and a 90-day rat study gave a no-observed-adverse-effect level of 100 mg/kg body weight per day [11]. Against the 20 mg/day supplement level, EFSA judged the margin of exposure of 344 sufficient and concluded the novel food is safe under its intended conditions of use [11].
As of November 11, 2026 we found no NIH Office of Dietary Supplements fact sheet on PQQ (archived ODS list captured November 1, 2026). Long-term human safety data beyond 24 weeks were not part of EFSA's assessment [11].
Interactions sources report
As of November 11, 2026 we found no human study of PQQ interactions with medicines (PubMed and Europe PMC searches, November 11, 2026). Health Canada's Antioxidants monograph assigns PQQ one risk statement, the caution to ask a health care practitioner before use if pregnant or breastfeeding [19]. Absence of a study is not evidence that no interaction exists.
If you take any medicines, talk to your doctor or pharmacist before combining them with PQQ.
Regulatory status
| Market | Status | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| US | FDA's new dietary ingredient docket lists a notification from Mitsubishi Gas Chemical for PQQ disodium salt (Report 417, received December 17, 2007; amended report received October 16, 2008); FDA's response is not verified as of November 12, 2026. Under DSHEA, FDA does not have the authority to approve dietary supplements before they are marketed. FDA's GRAS inventory lists seven notices for PQQ; the most recent, GRN 1118 (beverage uses up to 20 mg per serving), closed with 'FDA has no questions' on July 31, 2023. | |
| UK | Authorised novel food in England, Scotland and Wales (FSA register NOVEL-119, updated April 1, 2025): food supplements for adults excluding pregnant and lactating women, up to 20 mg/day, with a required label statement. | |
| Canada | Medicinal ingredient (Schedule 1 isolate) in the Natural Health Products Ingredients Database; covered by Health Canada's Antioxidants monograph since June 26, 2026, for adults 18 and older at up to 20 mg a day, with a pregnancy and breastfeeding caution. | |
| Australia | Not verified as of November 11, 2026. We checked the Permissible Ingredients Determination (No. 3) 2026, which has no entry for pyrroloquinoline quinone, and could not confirm its status; the ARTG and food standards were not searched. | |
| EU | Authorised novel food since September 2, 2018 (Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/1122): food supplements for adults excluding pregnant and lactating women, up to 20 mg/day, with a required label statement. |
FAQ
What does PQQ do in the body?
PQQ is a quinone compound that acts as a cofactor for redox enzymes [4]. In animals it influences energy-related metabolism [8], and in one trial of 23 men it raised PGC-1α, a marker of mitochondrial biogenesis, more than placebo [5]. These are mechanism findings, not evidence of better performance.
How much PQQ did studies use?
Most trials used 20 mg/day [2][3][5][7], and one used 21.5 mg/day of PQQ disodium salt [1], usually for 12 weeks. EFSA reviewed clinical studies at up to 100 mg/day for up to 24 weeks [11]. These are study doses, not advice.
Does PQQ give you more energy?
As of November 11, 2026 we found no placebo-controlled trial of PQQ alone on energy, fatigue, mood or sleep (PubMed and Europe PMC searches, 2026-11-11). The only sleep and fatigue study we found is an open-label trial of 17 adults, described in a review by Mitsubishi Gas Chemical researchers [12].
Is PQQ safe?
EFSA concluded that 20 mg/day is safe for healthy adults other than pregnant and lactating women, based mainly on animal studies [11]. Trials of up to 12 weeks, run or co-authored by PQQ makers, reported no adverse events [1][3], but EFSA noted that the clinical studies were not designed to assess kidney function [11].
References
- Shiojima Y, Takahashi M, Takahashi R, et al. Effect of Dietary Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt on Cognitive Function in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Study. J Am Nutr Assoc. 2022.
- Tamakoshi M, Suzuki T, Nishihara E, et al. Pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt improves brain function in both younger and older adults. Food Funct. 2023.
- Itoh Y, Hine K, Miura H, et al. Effect of the Antioxidant Supplement Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt (BioPQQ™) on Cognitive Functions. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2016.
- Nakano M, Murayama Y, Hu L, et al. Effects of Antioxidant Supplements (BioPQQ™) on Cerebral Blood Flow and Oxygen Metabolism in the Prefrontal Cortex. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2016.
- Hwang PS, Machek SB, Cardaci TD, et al. Effects of Pyrroloquinoline Quinone (PQQ) Supplementation on Aerobic Exercise Performance and Indices of Mitochondrial Biogenesis in Untrained Men. J Am Coll Nutr. 2020.
- Zhao C, Wu B, Sui H, et al. The effects of pyrroloquinoline quinone and nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation on interoception following acute exhaustive exercise: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Sci Rep. 2026.
- Nakano M, Kawasaki Y, Suzuki N, et al. Effects of Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt Intake on the Serum Cholesterol Levels of Healthy Japanese Adults. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2015.
- Harris CB, Chowanadisai W, Mishchuk DO, et al. Dietary pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) alters indicators of inflammation and mitochondrial-related metabolism in human subjects. J Nutr Biochem. 2013.
- Baltic S, Nedeljkovic D, Todorovic N, et al. The impact of six-week dihydrogen-pyrroloquinoline quinone supplementation on mitochondrial biomarkers, brain metabolism, and cognition in elderly individuals with mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. J Nutr Health Aging. 2024.
- Tsuji S, Takiuchi T, Handa M, et al. Serum anti-Müllerian hormone response to pyrroloquinoline quinone supplementation in healthy women: no overall change and exploratory subgroup findings. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2026.
- EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA), Turck D, Bresson JL, et al. Safety of pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EC) No 258/97. EFSA J. 2017.
- Ikemoto K, Mohamad Ishak NS, Akagawa M. The effects of pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt on brain function and physiological processes. J Med Invest. 2024.
- Gonzalez DE, Dickerson BL, Roberts BM, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: effects of dietary antioxidants on exercise and sports performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2026.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Questions and Answers on Dietary Supplements. Updated August 27, 2026.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. GRAS Notices inventory: search results for pyrroloquinoline. Updated November 2, 2026.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. GRN No. 1118 Pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt. Updated November 2, 2026.
- Food Standards Agency (Regulated Food and Feed Products for Great Britain). Novel food authorisation NOVEL-119: Pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt. Updated April 1, 2025.
- Health Canada (Natural and Non-prescription Health Products Directorate). Natural Health Products Ingredients Database: Pyrroloquinoline quinone. Updated February 5, 2026.
- Health Canada (Natural and Non-prescription Health Products Directorate). Monograph: Antioxidants. Updated June 26, 2026.
- Australian Government, Department of Health, Disability and Ageing (Federal Register of Legislation). Therapeutic Goods (Permissible Ingredients) Determination (No. 3) 2026 (F2026L01382). Updated October 13, 2026.
- European Commission (EUR-Lex). Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/1122 authorising the placing on the market of pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt as a novel food. Updated August 13, 2018.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Regulations.gov, new dietary ingredient docket FDA-1995-S-0039). Mitsibushi Gas Chemical Company (Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt) Report 417 - Report. Updated July 23, 2012.